In the world of education, we are exceptionally focused on student outcomes; yet research has sown that student outcomes only increase when teacher effectiveness increases (Anderson and Olivier, 2022), and "high-quality professional development is a central component in nearly every modern proposal for improving education" (Guskey, 2002, p. 381). With a decade of experience in the professional development realm as a curriculum director, I have observed firsthand that some of the most impactful professional learning experiences for educators are collaborative and authentic, connect directly to what they do in the classroom, and allow for reflection. 

In fact, the most simple yet most well-received professional development was asking teachers to visit another school and observe another teacher in action. Perhaps observing a peer provides a window outside an otherwise isolating profession (Elmore, 2002), or they receive a boost of self-efficacy from seeing a peer handle similar challenges (Anderson and Olivier, 2022). Regardless, experience has shown that educators' feedback consistently highlights these observational experiences as having a positive impact on instructional practices; however, the impact seems superficial and short-lived. Like many resources from professional development over the years, that reflection sheet collects dust on a shelf, and the possible transformational impact begins to fade from memory.

The context of education is continually changing, and teachers must dedicate their time to ongoing professional learning to ensure their knowledge and skills are relevant to support students (Susin, Gallagher, and Grierson, 2023) as we face changes in education, ranging from the integration of artificial intelligence and technology to shifts in student behavior and family dynamics. The challenge of supporting teachers has become overwhelming for teachers and administrators as they lack resources, face dysfunctional cultures, manage burnout and stress, and manage state and local mandates.

Pair these obstacles with the fear of the unknown. These changes to educational practices are new not only for current educators but were not present while I was in the classroom, creating a learning curve for all involved. Some educators react by resisting these changes, leading to frustration and burnout, while others approach them with eagerness and a willingness to learn but struggle to find good professional development. Our professional responsibility is to adapt and thrive in these changing conditions, ensuring that all students have equitable access to technology-rich learning environments (US Department of Education, 2024). The next divide in education will likely come from those who have access to technological tools and quality instruction rather than socio-economic factors in the future.

This paper explores how integrating social-cognitivist theories, particularly distributed cognition and situated cognition, with reflective practices can transform professional development. Using the distributed cognition theories of Hutchins (2000), Vygotsky’s theories of the Zone of Proximal Development, and the practical applications proposed by Salomon & Perkins (1998) and Wenger (1998), this discussion highlights the importance of collaborative, experiential learning environments to enhance teaching practices and student outcomes.

As Smylie noted in Timperley et al. (2007), “We will fail … to improve schooling for children until we acknowledge the importance of schools not only as places for teachers to work but also as places for teachers to learn” (p. 92).

The question of where cognition occurs, particularly in educational settings, cannot be reduced to a choice between happening solely within an individual's mind or being entirely distributed across multiple sources (Salomon, 1993). Social cognitivists argue that all high levels of functioning result from both interpsychological and intrapsychological processes (Hutchins, 2000). Cognition is distributed, or shared, across various sources, and according to lead social theorist Albert Bandura (1925), the combination of cognition, behavior, and environment work in tandem and shape each other, enhancing the overall intelligence of the system (Radford Arrow, 2016).

In the rapidly changing world, one of the most crucial educational outcomes is the ability of learners to handle new situations and meet intellectual challenges. Traditional views often limit cognition and skill to individual capacities, ignoring contributions of competence that grow from social, situational, and cultural contexts (Chaiklin & Lave, 1996). In contrast, distributed cognition embeds these into knowledge acquisition (Hutchins, 2000). As individuals learn, they identify patterns from past experiences, seek and apply them, and draw connections between external and internal experiences to inform their learning (Gee, 2010).

The theory is influenced by Vygotsky's (1978) concept of the Zone of Proximal Development, which states that external social processes become internalized, enhancing an individual's cognitive performance beyond what could be achieved alone (Salomon & Perkins, 1998). The authors argue that this internalization process raises cognitive performance to levels unattainable without social interaction and support, underscoring the importance of social contexts in cognitive development. 

Social-cognitivist theory focuses on learning as a process of social participation (Wenger, 1998). Participation involves not just engaging in specific activities with certain people but also being active participants in the practices of social communities and constructing identities within these communities (Radford Arrow, 2016). Within the community of practice, social theorists argue there must be an ongoing, social, interactional process where members actively negotiate new meanings and learn from each other, particularly within adult and continuing education environments (Radford Arrow, 2016). According to Lim et al. (2022), knowledge acquisition requires that both social and cognitive orientations be present and balanced in the learning environment.

Distributive cognition is a social-cognitivist theory that views thinking as a collective activity in which knowledge and skills are co-constructed by those who possess expertise and those acquiring new knowledge (Moore & Rocklin, 1998). According to Hutchins (2000), this theory diverges from traditional learning structures by asserting that learning is not confined to an individual. Instead, it can involve a broad array of sources, including interaction with others and with artifacts (Hutchins). Hutchins further elaborates that high-level cognitive functions first appear as an interpsychological process and later as an intrapsychological process, allowing for the creation of new functional systems through these actions.

Although often intermingled, distributed and situated cognition represent two sides of the same coin (Moore & Rocklin, 1998). Together, they highlight that learning occurs within the individual's mind and through social processes (Salomon & Perkins, 1998; Lim et al., 2022). Hutchins (2000) describes distributed cognition as a framework that extends cognitive processes beyond the individual to include other sources such as people, tools, and the environment. Lave and Wenger (1991) focus on how situated cognition is intricately tied to the social, cultural, and historical context in which it unfolds, asserting that these elements are key elements to understanding cognitive processes from a social learning perspective (Moore & Rocklin).

Lim et al. (2022), following the work of Bourdieu (1986), posit that the power of knowledge and learning is evident only when that learning is shared for others to interpret, value, and debate. In today’s information-rich environment, research by Paul (2021) supports the role of socially distributing cognitive systems in learning, which reduces cognitive load (Aly et al., 2023), and social accountability reduces the likelihood of bias in our learning (Paul, 2021).

“Every meaning is unstable, always edgily ready to change its function to something else, though never any-old-else. The intelligibility of meaning is not in which for the moment it is, but its imminent potential to become something else” (Kalantiz and Cope, 2022, p. 38). This readiness for transformation is lost without the opportunity for distributed cognition (Lim et al., 2022). Social learning strategies provide opportunities for cognitive and social orientations to learning (Salomon & Perkins, 1998).

Figure 3: Communities of Practice (Edina P, 2017)

Communities of practice are situated cognition in action and provide an opportunity to bring professional development to a practical space supported by peers (Edina P, 2017). The video in Figure 3 outlines a community of practice's purpose, structure, and function. Communities of practice are groups of individuals who share a common belief or concern and come together to learn and support each other. The primary functions of these communities, according to the video, echo the theories posited by James Paul Gee (2010) and John Dewey (1938) on the practical and reflective nature of learning within these communities: distributed knowledge, negotiating meanings, and collaboratively solve problems, The video outlines how engaging in these communities allows educators to not only apply theoretical knowledge in practical settings but also to enhance their professional capabilities through continuous and reflective interaction with peer support.

Communities of practice emphasize learning as a process of social participation, where participation involves not just engaging in specific activities with certain people but being active participants in the practices of social communities and creating identities within these communities by sharing experiences, language, culture, and history (Wenger, 1998). Learning in these communities is an ongoing, social, interactional process where members interact, do things together, negotiate new meanings, and learn from each other (Lave & Wenger, 1991), and this continuous interaction is how practices evolve and communities of practice reproduce their membership encouraging connection even among those who might not connect otherwise (Edina, 2017).

Figure 4: Situated Learning Theory (Green et al., 2018)

Figure 4 breaks down a simple view connecting situated cognition with communities of practice. James Paul Gee (2010) posits that situated cognition allows learners to engage thoughtfully by reflecting on the elements of experiences, which, according to Dewey (1938), must come from actual experiences (or authentic contexts) rather than abstract scenarios or academic theories (Çimer et al., 2013). Reflecting on personal experience can lead teachers to construct new perspectives and develop new insights from that experience that can be applied in future situations. The distribution of this knowledge in a community of practice emphasizes that knowledge acquisition is contextual, embodied, and best when distributed across various tools, technologies, and groups of people (Gee, 2010) (Figure 2). Gee continues in his support of communities of practice by suggesting that sharing that takes place within the group would be supported through the debate, discussion, and annotation of the author and group members.

However, professional development initiatives often fall short because they require teachers to connect to an existing knowledge base to apply new information (Salomon & Perkins, 1998), especially new teachers who lack experience. Communities of practice counter this by facilitating shared cognition strategies such as collaborative problem-solving and peer coaching, effectively engaging teachers with new content and pedagogical approaches. While pre-service teachers are introduced to reflection and inquiry as social practices (Senese, 2017), practicing teachers may find themselves disconnected from meaningful professional development, resulting in limited improvement (Salomon & Perkins). Salomon and Perkins argue that learner intervention from external agents or built-in accountability measures is necessary to develop intentional, conceptually oriented, transformative learning, which is a feature of well-established communities of practice. “New knowledge can lead to new opportunities” in communities of practice (Edina, 2017).

Today, many communities of practice work collaboratively to analyze student data (Senese, 2017); however, teachers need the distributed wisdom and collaboration of these communities to experience professional learning on new strategies and content or to challenge their existing beliefs (Lotter & Miller, 2017). The features of a community of practice to communicate, collaborate, and share knowledge can support teachers in finding innovative solutions to teaching problems (Daniels et al., 2013), open dialogue about change, and develop teacher efficacy and responsiveness to needs (Çimer et al., 2013).

Çimer et al. (2013) argue that effective teaching requires an awareness of one’s values, norms, and practices, requiring reflections on personal experiences. Reflection is beneficial and integral to teachers’ learning (Lotter & Miller, 2017).

Dewey believed in four categories of thought, while the first two are more general, reflection and thinking reflectively require higher levels of thinking (Figure 5) (Tilde Psychology, 2022). As the video in Figure 5 explains (Tilde Psychology, 2022), reflective thinking is the intentional act of thinking about past occurrences that align with future ideas and the growth and support of how they may influence one another.

Figure 5: What is Thought? (Tilde Psychology, 2022)

Reflective thinking is a key process in education where teachers look back to understand and explore prior experiences to understand and draw connections from past experiences, aiming to enhance future educational outcomes (Lotter & Miller, 2017). Although definitions may vary, critical reflection is often distinguished by its depth and the application of theoretical frameworks to real-life experiences (Çimer et al., 2013). Many models, such as those developed by Kolb (1984) and Gibbs (1988) exist to illustrate and facilitate how experiences can be transformed into actionable insights (Wight et al., 2016).

These models encourage teachers to analyze their experiences critically and apply these insights to improve their professional practice (Wight et al., 2016). Models like Kolb’s experiential learning cycle and Gibbs's reflective cycle provide structured processes to facilitate deep reflection. They are not tools to quickly look back and seek to revisit the experience and provide a product; rather, they are intended to be a metacognitive examination leading to a better understanding and refinement of teaching practices (Wight et al.). Changes in self-awareness and instruction are more profound at higher levels of reflection and unlikely to occur at lower levels (Ridge & Lavigne, 2020). A study conducted by Wight et al. showed that participants who focused more time on the reflection process than providing a finished reflective product reached higher levels of reflection.

Figure 6 is a synthesis of Kolb’s (1984) and Gibbs' (1988) cycles, as illustrated by Wight et al. (2016). Reflective practices integrated into models like those shown in Figure 6 help to bridge the gap between theory and practical application. These models provide individual educators and communities of practice with a framework and guide to use while learning how to reflect critically and adapt instructional strategies.

Figure 6: Synthesis of Kolbs (1984) and Gibbs (1988) Model (Wight et al, 2016)

Reflective practice can occur in many forms through in-action (in the moment) or on-action (after the moment) processes. Maeyeri and Rahimiy (2019) share narrating as an example of reflection where teachers share and analyze their experiences through journaling or structured discussion. Another social learning reflective practice is framing and reframing experiences. The team member(s) job is to question, listen, and encourage the teacher to see the situation through a new and deeper perspective after discussion and conversation (Senese, 2017). Reflective practices such as reframing, narrating, peer coaching, and case studies provide different avenues for teachers to analyze their experiences and explore their teaching practices (Farrell, 2021). Each method draws from the processes in models like Kolb and Gibbs and is intended to help teachers reach higher levels of reflective thinking to evaluate their effectiveness and gain actionable insights (Jaeger, 2013); however, unlike the models, they narrow the scope of the work and provide more direction and accountability. Figure 7 provides some additional examples of reflective methods teachers may use to guide reflective thinking.

Figure 7: Reflection Method Examples

Models and tools can equip educators to use reflective strategies. Still, Wight et al. (2016) would suggest the focus be on the process and not the product to reach the benefits of professional learning.

The rapidly evolving world requires enhancements to teacher professional development that integrate social learning theories with communities of teaching practices.

"Central to Wenger’s thesis is a social theory of learning, recognising that learning within a community of practice happens as a result of that community and its interactions, and not merely as a result of planned learning episodes such as courses" (Kennedy, 2005, p. 244).

Distributed cognition and situated cognition, combined with reflective thinking structured within communities of practice, provide an opportunity for teacher learning and development compared to existing professional development practices. Distributed cognition emphasizes the collective aspect of thinking, where knowledge and skills are spread across individuals and tools, not confined within an individual (Hutchins, 2000). Situated cognition emphasizes learning embedded within the social and cultural context, enhancing professional growth through active participation in professional communities (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Salomon & Perkins, 1998).

Figure 8: Reflective Thinking in Communities of Practice (Kurt, 2021)

Figure 8 shows reflective thinking as a crucial tool within a system of situated learning that can provide a systematic method for teachers to critically analyze and adapt their teaching practices based on real-time feedback and collaborative discourse with their professional colleagues (Ridge & Lavigne, 2020). This reflective capacity is important so teachers can internalize and apply the knowledge gained from distributed and situated cognitive experiences, enhancing both personal and professional growth (Wenger, 1998). This also provides support to school leaders who are tasked with providing evaluating feedback to teachers outside of their area of expertise (Ridge & Lavigne) as the built-in accountability of communities of practice to provide safe, constructive feedback to gain new knowledge and deeper self-awareness to grow skills (Farrell, 2021).

The cycle of work demonstrated in Figure 8 shows where communities of practice are pivotal in providing dynamic environments where teachers continuously engage with peers to share experiences, challenge assumptions, and collaboratively address common educational challenges (Wenger, 1998). Such interactions cultivate a culture of shared knowledge and ongoing reflective thinking, which has been shown to reduce professional isolation, enhance problem-solving capabilities, and improve teacher self-efficacy (Daniels et al., 2013).

Research highlights the effectiveness of integrating critical reflection into communities of practice. Studies underscored by Lotter and Miller (2017) demonstrate that structures reflective activities, particularly those that align with real-world teaching demands, significantly deepen engagements with instructional challenges. A meta-analysis conducted by Ridge and Lavigne (2020) on peer review and feedback emphasizes collaboration as a key factor in enhancing teacher satisfaction and autonomy in problem-solving, indicating the effectiveness of peer collaborative environments. Professional development programs that provide distributive and supportive learning environments where teachers confront student learning issues through collaborative experimentation and guided peer reflection are more likely to function autonomously with higher levels of success (Wenger, 1998).

Some reflection strategies, such as Schon's reflection-in and reflection-on-action, writing, research, and lesson study, risk fostering a culture of isolation if not embedded in a community of practice (Senese, 2017). By situating reflection within a community of practice, educators can leverage their peers' diverse perspectives and expertise, promoting a deeper understanding and more innovative approaches to teaching. Additionally, this shift helps move beyond individual reflections to address broader educational challenges, ensuring that reflective practices contribute positively to both personal growth and systemic improvements (Senese, 2017).

Integration of distributed cognition and situated cognition with reflective thinking can enrich teacher professional development. This approach fosters a collaborative and context-relevant learning environment, and within these communities, educators can collectively share and apply cognitive strategies in practical settings, which will enhance both their professional growth and instructional effectiveness (Wenger, 1998). Wenger (1998) and Lave & Wenger (1991) discuss how such environments foster not just individual learning but also collective understanding and problem-solving abilities and, therefore, their instructional practices and student achievement. This integration helps educators move beyond isolated reflections (Ridge & Lavinge, 2020) to address broader educational challenges (Çimer et al., 2013), effectively linking theory with practical application in the professional development sphere. This model aligns with current educational research advocating for transformative practices that integrate theory and practice within professional learning communities.

Among the research conducted on reflective practices in the educational setting, there are very few that measure observable changes in instructional practices as a direct outcome of reflective practices or professional development interventions. As noted by Bowman & McCormick (2001), there is a need for more rigorous study designs that not only implement quasi-experimental methodologies but also incorporate both pre- and post-measures to assess the impact of these practices (cited in Ridge & Lavigne, 2020). This gap creates a barrier to establishing a foothold in using reflective methods as an effective professional development program (Ridge & Lavigne).

Another significant gap is the lack of direct research into how teacher reflection impacts student learning outcomes. Despite numerous studies on the subject, as pointed out by Jaeger (2013), there is a lack of research information that connects teacher reflection directly with student outcomes. A study conducted by Vaughn (1988) notes the omission of impact data on student learning, and Jaeger notes that this gap remains a problem today. Gee (2010) states that reflection brings about change, not academics, yet educational organizations currently spend most of their time collaborating on academic data to find meaning (Senese, 2017). This gap suggests a disconnect between the theoretical benefits of reflective practice and practical outcomes that requires further research.

Furthermore, there is a lack of clarity regarding the depth of reflection achieved in various studies (Lotter & Miller, 2017). Korthagen (2014) states that the level of reflection, whether it remains superficial or reaches the depth required for significant professional growth, is often not evident in the research. In the reflection models highlighted just in this paper (Kolb and Gibbs), a person can achieve four to five levels of reflection; however, many studies do not delineate the differences between these levels (Korthagen). Lotter and Miller argue that reaching the highest level of any model or method must be considered a crucial reflection and, therefore, impacts teacher learning the most; however, there is little data to support this. One study by Kang (2007) indicated that teachers reached higher levels of reflection when asked to justify teaching practices compared to student learning outcomes (cited in Lotter & Miller). Korthagen suggests that this oversight can lead to overestimating the effectiveness of reflective practices if the depth of reflection necessary for genuine change is not reached.

As quickly as the world is changing, future research must focus on leveraging the untapped expertise of the classroom teacher by creating structured environments that encourage collaborative problem-solving and innovation for professional development (Pugach & Johnson, 1995). Studying how authentic critical reflection within these settings creates measurable changes in instructional practices and student outcomes is a critical gap overlooked in current research (Jaeger, 2013). Research should also consider long-term studies to understand the evolution and impact of these practices over time.

Reflective practice involves both cognitive and emotional processes (Çimer et al., 2013). Emotions are an integral part of learning that cannot be overlooked. Exploring how emotions create barriers in the reflective process might help educators make deeper learning connections (Salomon & Perkins, 1998), and investigating the affective portion of reflective practices may enhance collaboration and communication in communities of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Researching the role of technology in supporting reflective practices and communities of practice as a contributing member via artificial intelligence may also reveal additional insights on sustaining changes in instructional practices.

Research on professional development and reflective practices has been limited to homogeneous populations. To expand the relevance and applicability of this practice across various contexts, future studies need to explore these practices in more diverse settings and with varied teacher demographics (Moayeri & Rahimiy, 2019). Communities of practice are in place to address social, moral, and ethical issues (Lotter & Miller, 2017); however, research does not support this practice. In Moayeri & Rahimiy, Gomez (1996) notes that while reflective practice is intended to improve teaching strategies, it can reinforce pre-existing biases without proper structures in place to challenge racist presumptions. This highlights the importance of conducting research in culturally diverse contexts.

Examining distributed cognition, situated cognition, and reflective practices within professional learning environments reveals a compelling path toward more nuanced and effective professional learning strategies. In the face of fast-paced changes in education, professional growth is more important than ever; therefore, these theories need to be studied. Studies illustrated the profound impact that community-driven, reflective practices may have on teacher efficacy and instructional changes. However, despite some promising outcomes, there are substantial gaps and challenges that remain, especially in the alignment of reflective practices with actual instructional changes and their direct impacts on student learning. Future research must address these gaps by employing rigorous, long-term study designs and exploring these strategies across diverse educational settings. Ultimately, this paper advocates for a transformative shift in teacher professional development, emphasizing that real change requires theoretical knowledge and the continuous, reflective engagement of educators within their professional communities.